Scientific and Technological Development

  SCIENCE is the area of human knowledge which deals with the understanding of laws and principles of nature. Its origin can be traced back to the very beginning of human history. It was accompanied by the development of technology the application of knowledge-to help human beings in their various activities. Science and technology progressed hand in glove and their progress in each generation was based on the experience and contributions of the previous generations. The growth in science and technology has been generally continuous but in certain periods of human history, the rate of progress has been accelerated. In the periods of great historical change, the role of science and technology has been crucial. However, the progress in science and in technology has not always been a simultaneous process. The period of what we call ‘Modern Science’ began during the Renaissance, which marked the beginning of the modern age.
   Significant developments in technology began to take place in the mid-eighteenth century and brought about the Industrial Revolution. During the past hundred years or so, the two have moved closer together than ever before and have progressed at an ever accelerating rate. You are already familiar with certain aspects of the Industrial Revolution which both resulted from and brought about vast social changes through a shift from home-based hand-made products to factory-based machine made products. The construction of canals for waterways, the use of different sources of energy, the ability to convert one form of energy into another, the use of metals and alloys (iron and steel) to modify the existing tools and machines, for example, plough, loom, etc., were important landmarks of the Industrial Revolution.
   The Industrial Revolution had started first in England during the later half of the eighteenth century and gradually spread during the next hundred years or so to some other countries of the Western world, completely transforming their social and economic systems.

The Second Industrial Revolution

  The progress of the Industrial Revolution continued steadily up to about 1860. In the next hundred years, there were many important breakthroughs in science and technology. The in; creasing application of these brought about changes in the entire ‘system of industrial production which, because of their magnitude, are referred to as marking the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution.
   ‘Mass production’ and ‘mass consumption’ are the keywords to describe the Second Industrial Revolution. Growth of technology became closely linked with the growth of science. There was a great shift from the use of mechanical devices to electrical and then to electronic and automated devices in industry. The nineteenth century industry used wind and coal as major energy sources. This was followed by electrical energy, petroleum, diesel and natural gas. While tremendous effort is now being made in the search for alternative sources of energy, there has been an increasingly more efficient utilization of energy. Chemical industry became increasingly important. The industrial plants become larger in size for large-scale production. The production of machines and machine tools for different industries developed as an important industry.
   During the Second Industrial Revolution, there was a manifold increase in food production which was possible through the use of new agricultural implements and of a host of chemicals as fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and fungicides. The storage facilities improved, which helped the producers. The consumers also benefited. They could get agricultural products throughout the year without major fluctuations in price. Improvements in transport made possible and increasingly faster, the movement of vast quantities of goods and of people from one place to another. New means of communication, which started with the introduction of postal system, soon improved with the introduction of telegraph, telephone and wireless. With the coming of radar and satellite, communication became faster. Better health and increase in the life-span of human beings were possible due to the improved nutrition, health and sanitation facilities. Physicians now use various complex and sophisticated machines to obtain detailed information about the human body. A large number of problems had to be solved and various kinds of equipment invented before it became possible for man, for example, to land and walk on the surface of the moon or to transplant the heart.
   In the twentieth century, different household appliances and gadgets like the sewing-machine, refrigerator, deep-freezer, cooking-gas, oven, stove, washing-machine, drying-machine, dishwasher, pressure cooker, mixer-grinder, and floor cleaner have made it possible to relieve human beings from drudgery and create longer hours of leisure. The coming of motion picture, radio and TV has opened up new means of entertainment. The development of the newsprint, paper and printing technology, together with photography and sound engineering, have opened up a new area of communication which has the potentiality to remove illiteracy and expand the scope of education.
   New kinds of occupational structures have developed during the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. For example, new professions like trained engineers, managers, technicians, salesmen, statisticians, office workers, advertisers, mechanics, and a large number of new occupations for new industries like radio, TV, cinema and aviation appeared in the twentieth century. Today, there is a vast requirement of doctors, nurses, teachers, entertainers, hotel and restaurant employees, and providers of holiday and travel facilities. The number of working scientists in the world today is larger than the total number of scientists in all previous history.

Breakthroughs in Science and Technology

  If we look at the Second Industrial Revolution, which began in about 1860, we find that it was accompanied by a number of breakthroughs in science and faster development of technology. For example, the modern aeroplane had its beginning in the first quarter of the twentieth century but within the next 40 years it became possible to travel in the outer space. Another significant feature in this period of rapid knowledge explosion in science is the growth of narrow specialization. It was no longer enough to classify scientists as physicists, chemists and biologists; they had to be described in terms of their further specialization such as nuclear physicist, astrophysicist, biochemist, physiologist, laxonomist, crystallographer, etc. The growth of specialization also led to the dissolution of the old compartments of science, and many new and integrated areas were born, e.g. biophysics, molecular biology, space science, etc. The principle of conservation of energy united three distinct fields of study of the nineteenth century: mechanics, electromagnetism, and thermodynamics. The new understanding of the structure of the matter unified physical, biological and earth sciences.

DEVELOPMENTS IN BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

  The important findings of biological science up to the end of the nineteenth century, which served as the foundation of the twentieth century biology, are -
(1) All living organisms are made up of a complex chemical substance, called Protoplasm.
(2) All living organisms are made up of minute chamber-like cells and their products and all cells originate from pre-existing cells.
(3) All present day living organisms have evolved from ancestors with simpler organization.
(4) All organisms pass through an orderly process during development from the fertilized egg.
(5) Life manifests itself through processes which conform to the laws of physics and chemistry.
   The most important contribution of the twentieth century biology is the discovery that all organisms are genetically related to one another. Important contributions were made in the understanding of genes, variations, mutation, course of evolution, ecology, animal and human behavior, structural details of cell, tissue culture, artificial parthenogenesis, artificial insemination, plant and animal hormones, biology of virus and bacteria cell physiology, and photo synthesis. Let us discuss briefly some of these findings.

Evolution and Genetics

  The year 1860 was one of the most remarkable years in the history of mankind. Just a couple of years earlier, Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, presented a theory to explain organic evolution by natural selection. According to his theory, all organisms tend to multiply prolifically, and no two individuals are exactly alike. Thus, in each generation a large number of variations are formed. As space and food remain more or less constant, these offspring compete with each other for better living. Darwin called it the struggle for existence. The successful variations survive and continue to live and reproduce (survival of the fittest). According to Darwin, nature selects the successful variations which are allowed to propagate (natural selection). Through enormous evidences drawn from various sources, Darwin proposed that all organisms have evolved in this way from simpler forms, and it took millions of years to arrive at the present day diversity. Human beings came last in this process of evolution.
   Darwin’s theory explained the origin of man as an outcome of the gradual process of biological evolution. It undermined the theory of special creation which had been popular for many centuries. It played a very important role in promoting scientific outlook. It was, however, distorted by some people who applied it to human affairs. They advocated the view that struggle for existence meant that war and exploitation were integral parts of the natural order of the world and that survival of the fittest proved that the upper classes dominated society because they were the fittest and had a natural right to rule over the rest. The racists-also distorted certain aspects of Darwin’s theory to preach ideas of racial superiority.
   For a long time, human beings were breeding plants and animals to obtain desirable varieties. Darwin compared this role of human beings with that of nature and forwarded his idea of natural selection. It was, however, not known how the variations originate, how diverse characters are controlled, and how the characters are transferred from one generation to the next.
   In the year 1900, principles of heredity were discovered independently by three scientists Hugo Vries, Correns and Tschermack--which explained how characters are inherited from one generation to the next. In fact, this was a rediscovery of the findings of Gregor John Mendel, an Austrian monk, who had formulated these laws in 1867 through meticulous experiments. It is unfortunate that in spite of the publication of these findings in a journal, Mendel could not draw the attention of the scientists. Even Charles Darwin, who was frantically looking for a possible mechanism of the transfer of characters from one generation to the next, missed these findings and was not able to explain the cause of variation and the mechanism of inheritance. Almost at the same time, it was demonstrated that all multi-cellular organisms begin through the union of two cells-the sperm contributed by the male and the egg contributed by the female.
   Daring the period 1990-1925, the growth of knowledge in the areas of genetics and cytology was faster. It was soon discovered that chromosomes are the physical bases of heredity and they play an important role in the development of the individual organism. Mendel’s theory, which was originally based on his experiments with pea plants, was found to be equally applicable to all living organisms. Chromosomes were found to contain discrete bodies responsible for controlling a particular character. These bodies were named genes. After the identification of the genes, the chromosome maps of many organisms were produced.
   De Vries (1903), one of the co-discoverers of Mendel’s theory, pointed out that change in an individual from one generation to the other may be sudden. He named it ‘mutation’. In 1927, Muller showed that it was possible to induce mutation artificially by X-rays. This was soon followed by mutation through several chemical and physical factors. Once the physical basis of heredity was understood, efforts were made to know its chemical basis. The earlier results of experiment of Griffith performed in 1925 was confirmed by Hershey and Chase in 1952 that DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid is the chemical basis of gene. Another nucleic acid, called Ribonucleic Acid (RNA), was also found to be present in the cell.
   From the study of biochemistry, it was already known that all living organisms are made up of innumerable types of proteins. The different functions within a living body are catalysed by enzymes which are also proteins. Each enzyme is highly specific for each function and for that particular function it is the same in all organisms. All these proteins in different organisms are made, up of different combinations of twenty amino acids.
   Watson and Crick (1953) formulated the molecular model of DNA and gave the basis of theoretical explanation of genes function. Very soon the findings of Watson and Crick were confirmed experimentally. By 1970 it was known how the DNA resides in the chromosome, how it duplicates, how it carries the instruction (Genetic Code) and how it functions (gene action). Once this was understood, the DNA-RNA-protein became the central dogma of biology and through intricate technological interventions it has now become possible to change the genetic make-up of organisms. This new area is called genetic engineering.

Behavioural Sciences

  In the twentieth century, the study of animal behaviour became an experimental science and thus it was no longer an anthropomorphic description of behaviour of animals. Scientists like Julian Huxley, Konrad Lorenz, David Lack, J.Z. Young and Karl von Frisch analysed the behavioural mechanism of different animals. By the middle of the twentieth century, experimental psychology was well established. Many researches were carried out to understand the mechanism of learning. The findings of Piaget, Brunner and Skinner were particularly significant in this regard. The studies of reflex action, conditioned reflex, the working of the spinal cord and the human brain threw new light on many mysteries. The measurement and recording of electric activity of the brain was made possible by the coming of electroencephalography. Similarly detection and recording of electrical activity of the heart was made possible by electrocardiography. The study of brain, which combined surgical, physiological and anatomical methods, is going on by using electronics and computers.

Study of the Cell Hormones and Micro-organisms

  With the coming of electron microscope, it became possible to know the different pans of the cell in detail. New knowledge about the celly membrane, nuclear membrane, cytoplasm and different cell organelles was acquired. The use of ultra centrifuge helped in separating various intercellular particles. The application of different microsurgical and tissue culture techniques helped to understand the role of cells in development.
   The hormones as chemical regulators were known since the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century, it was found out that these hormones are present also in invertebrate animals. The details were known about the specificity of hormones and the mechanism of identifying the specific action sites of each hormone. The nerve cells were found to release specific hormones. The new knowledge in the field of plant hormones led to many important applications in the field of horticulture and floriculture.
   The study of micro-organisms attained a great height in the twentieth century. Artificially prepared culture media were used for culturing these micro-organisms. Since bacteria and vis ruses began to be used by geneticists and molecular biologists in their experiments, tremendous improvement has taken place in the culture of micro-organisms.
   The use of microbes in the industrial production of alcohol, cheese, etc. is well known. In recent years, the combination of genetic engineering and microbiology has led to the coming of a new technology, called biotechnology. Within a short period it has shown immense possibility of changing the existing technology of producing organic products of everyday use.

Unity in Diversity

  The biochemical studies of various organisms revealed that all organisms, despite their diversity, exhibit a kind of unity. For example, the DNA is the hereditary material in almost all organisms, vitamins are used in all organisms, and the mechanism of cellular respiration is the same in all organisms. The nature and structure of proteins are known in detail. The knowledge about the structure of protein molecules and the chemical nature of proteins has helped us understand phenomena like enzyme reaction and antigen-antibody reactions. The knowledge of antigen antibody reactions led to achievements in the field of organ transplantations in human beings.

Origin of Life

  The most fascinating development in biology in the twentieth century is the search for the origin of life. The techniques of astrophysics are used in the search for life in other planets. Space science includes a component called space biology. Experimental designs are set up to simulate the situation that prevailed on earth millions of years ago, and it has been possible to synthesize artificially amino acids and polypeptides, the building blocks of protein. It has now been possible to synthesize DNA outside the cell. Such synthesized DNA, when introduced within a bacterium, can express itself. Today, theoretically it is possible to transfer any gene to any recipient and make it functional.

DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICAL SCIENCES

  The important achievements in the area of physical sciences in the twentieth century may be grouped under three categories---the nature of matter, the nature of the earth and the nature of the universe.

Nature of Matter

  The development of the new theory of matter includes the development of the model of atomic nucleus, the development of quantum mechanics, and the development of nuclear physics for understanding of nuclear stability, artificial radioactivity, and fission. The studies of cryogenics, solid state physics, and new elementary particles also fall under this group.
   The knowledge of nuclear mode] and the findings of nuclear physics and quantum mechanics have helped in the rapid growth-of electronics industry which has revolutionized the communication industry. Aeronautics has also benefited from this knowledge. Cryogenic studies (effects of extreme cold temperatures) have revealed that in extreme cold temperatures certain metals exhibit superconductivity, i.e. they are free from resistance to electric current and possess unusual magnetic behaviour.

Nature of the Earth

  Understanding the nature of the earth, its surface, its age, its interior, and its atmosphere is a significant achievement. The observance of International Geophysical Year in 1957-58 was a pioneering collaborative effort in which the nations with diverse ideological, political and economic systems participated. This had led to the coming of age of the branch of weather science or meteorology.

Nature of the Universe

  Today, a great deal is known about the nature of the universe. The construction of powerful telescopes and improved spectroscopic techniques has greatly aided our understanding of the nature of the universe.
   We now know (thanks to Professor M.N. Saha’s discovery) that stars are made up of the same elements such as Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Helium as are seen on earth. We know today about the expanding nature of the universe, the birth and death of the stars, the distance of the stars from us and between themselves, and the relationship between the solar system and the rest of the stars. Scientists are looking for an opportunity to see the stars from a station outside the earth’s gravitational force. The developments in space research with artificial satellites have made the dream real and studies are undertaken with the help of satellites, which act as intermediate stations.

The Story of Atom

  Mendeleyev discovered that elements found in nature could be arranged in an order in terms of their atomic weight. He developed a periodic table of 92 elements according to the increasing atomic weights of the individual elements. He speculated that some elements which are present in nature had not yet been discovered. Within a short period, Mendeleyev’s prediction was found to be true.
   The discovery of X-ray by Roentgen in 1895 provided us with an important tool to explore many things that are ordinarily invisible. It was later used in probing the human body, the structure of various materials, and the configuration of molecules. In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered the presence of electron in the atom and challenged the notion of indivisibility of the atom. In 1900 Einstein observed similarity in the movement of different heavenly bodies and the movement of electrons within the atom, and, through his theory of relativity, explained orderliness in the universe. Einstein’s discovery that matter and energy are inter-convertible was a real breakthrough because it opened up the possibility of exploring the immense source of energy within the atom. In 1911 Rutherford described the model of an atom having a central nucleus and electrons circling around it. In 1913, Niels Bohr combined the model of Rutherford with the idea of Max Planck and presented a new model of atom. The study of quantum physics started from that time. Niels Bohr‘s model was later found to be not true, and a new model was accepted.
   In 1932, Chadwick discovered the presence of two kinds of particles in the nucleus of atom --proton which is electrically positive and neutron which is neutral. In 1934, Enrico Fermi fired neutron of one atom into the nucleus of another atom and changed it. The first man-made element, plutonium, was made. This was followed by production of several new elements and a number of isotopes. In 1934 Leo Szilard forwarded the idea of chain reaction, and in 1938 Enrico Fermi was able to mastermind the successful production of the sustained chain reaction. In 1939 Hans Bethe experimentally demonstrated the transformation of hydrogen atom into helium. All these Findings proved that atoms are real, divisible, and mumble, and human beings got a new potentially unlimited source of energy.
   The story of the atom will remain incomplete without mentioning the happenings that followed the new discoveries. In 1939, that is, shortly after the coming of the new findings, the Second World War broke out. All the major powers deployed their scientists and technologists to develop atomic weapons. The combined efforts of the British and American scientists and technologists and various others from many Countries resulted in the successful testing of the atomic bomb in the USA. Atomic bombs were used against Japan on its two cities-Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This brought the Second World War to an end but science earned a bad name. Now, the scientists who were involved in the study of atom expressed their grave concern over the consequences of their researches on society. Under the leadership of Einstein, they cautioned about the immense danger in the study of atoms. They recommended strict control over atomic research. Leo Szilard, who discovered chain reaction, gave up nuclear science and took to the study of biology. He mobilized world opinion to stop nuclear proliferation and fought for giving peace a chance.

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BASIC SCIENCES, TECHNOLOGY, AND DEVELOPMENT

  The breakthroughs of basic sciences which helped in the rapid progress of the Second Industrial Revolution are –
(1) The understanding of the laws of heredzty.
(2) Physical and chemical basis of heredity.
(3) The understanding of the nature of atom.
(4) Inter-convertibility of mass and energy.
(5) Discoveries of sub-atomic particles and isptopes.
(6) Mutation by different physical and chemical agents.
(7) Semi-conductors and superconductors.
(8) Molecular basis of the gene.
(9) Artificial production of new materials.
(10) Antibiotics.
   All these developments and subsequent findings in the area of basic sciences were possible because of the new kind of technology. In order to see the details at the micro level, equipment like Phase Contrast, interference and electron microscopes were used. The electron microscope increased magnification by 100,000 to 200,000 times. In order to know about the distant, planets, stars, and other heavenly bodies, powerful telescopes and spectroscopes were developed. New techniques involving sophisticated, equipment were developed to study extraction, separation, analysis, mixing, and transfer of different substances. The coming of electronics and laser created opportunity to introduce machines within a machine and automation. For a long time, without understanding the laws of heredity, human beings were selectively breeding plants and animals for getting improved varieties. Animal and plant-breeding improved further with the coming of genetics.
   Most mutations, spontaneous or artificial, were found to be harmful to the organism. Some mutated forms were selectively bred to obtain new varieties of plants and animals for the use of man. On the other hand, the danger to health from radiation and the mutation caused by it has threatened the continuity of living organisms. Such radiation may come from sources like excessive use of X-rays, chemicals industry, nuclear reactors, the use of isotopes, and nuclear explosions.
   Recent advances in superconductor research in Japan have opened up the possibility of new kind of materials which are expected to play an important role in magnetic, power transmission, transportation, and electronics. The studies in solid state physics led to the coming of transistors and integrated circuits, which have totally changed the valve-based communication technology.
   The findings during the International Geophysical Year helped the petroleum industry, commercial synthesis of diamond, and understanding about the radioactive decay. The study of earthquakes (Seismology) was updated. Today, through new communication technology and satellites, it is possible to accurately predict cyclones, storms, floods, and other natural disasters.
   The various, developments during the Second Industrial Revolution led to the rapid increase in human population. There is no environment on earth where human beings have not set their feet, whether it is the ice-capped polar region or the hottest desert, the highest mountain or the depth of the ocean, a dense forest or the vast grassland. Human beings have made almost every part of the land surface habitable through the use of technology. There has been a vast movement of human beings from villages to cities and to all the regions of the earth.
   It should be remembered that every development that has taken place has not always promoted human welfare. The over-population and mass utilization of the products have created problems like environmental degradation and have given rise to various kinds of tension. However, in recent years there has been an increasing global concern about these problems as well as a growing realization of the need to tackle them. “Think globally and act locally” has become one of the commonly accepted mottos.
   In the following pages, developmental areas like food, health, transport and communication have been discussed to highlight the changes that have taken place during the Second Industrial Revolution.

Food

  The application of science-based technology has brought about tremendous improvement in the areas of food production, food distribution and food utilization. The production of all the major crops, vegetables, and fruits has increased. This has been due to the selection of better variety, improved irrigation methods, the use of sophisticated implements, and application of specific nutrients as fertilizers and manures. The utilization of different insecticides and pesticides has considerably reduced food loss in the field and storage. Similar increase of production has taken place in the foods from animal sources. The advances made by poultry and veterinary sciences and improved techniques of fish cultivation and captures have made this increase possible. Many new food items have been introduced and constant efforts are going on to improve food production. The application of the cell, tissue, and embryo culture techniques, the system of artificial breeding of plants and animals are some of the steps which are being taken for increasing food production.
   The improvement in transport has helped the distribution of food far away from the field or production site. This has expanded the market for the producers and raised their income. The coming of cold storage, refrigerated trucks and wagons has made perishable goods available even in distant places.
   The steps taken to prevent the wastage of food have helped in maximizing the food utilization. Once it was estimated that from field to plate, we lost more than 30 per cent of our food production, which is more than enough to meet our deficit. The introduction of different rodent control methods, better packaging and improved cooking techniques have bettered the utilization of food. A new branch of science, called nutrition, has made food utilization more scientific. The coming of gadgets like the refrigerator and deep freeze are saving many perishable food items. All these developments have made the total elimination of famines from every part of the world possible.

Health

  Improvement in the standard of health is responsible for the increase in population. The lifespan of human beings has increased because it has been possible to control many diseases and increase physical fitness. The coming of medicines like sulpha drugs, specific anti-malarial drugs, vaccines, hormones, and antibiotics has helped human beings to control many diseases. It has been possible to eradicate small-pox. The plague which used to take a toll of millions of human lives is now a rare occurrence. Diseases like tuberculosis, typhoid, and cholera have been effectively controlled by vaccines and medicines. Many new diseases such as cancer and AIDS are still threatening human beings and steps are being taken to control them. Environs mental degradation has caused air and water pollution. These are threatening the general health of human beings. Good quality of food, improvement in environmental sanitation, and arrangement of proper medical facilities are planned in all countries to improve the health condition of the people. Prevention of a disease is stressed more than the cure of the disease. Individual health is important but more important is the community health. For good health, it is necessary to maintain healthful living. For this purpose, well-planned health education has been introduced in most countries at the school level.

Transport

Automobiles

  The animal-drawn carriages, steam locomotives and motor-cars with steam power, and various types of internal combustion engines were the principal forms of transport in the nineteenth century. The discovery of pneumatic type tyres in 1889 helped in the increase in speed. With the introduction of petrol/diesel operated internal combustion engine, the automobiles became a major, and in some countries the principal, mode of transportation In the USA Henry Ford introduced the conveyor belt system in his factory, which increased the rate of motor-car production. Similar mechanism was soon adopted in other countries. The public transport system developed through buses. Pickup vans and huge transport trucks started working as goods carriers and offered stiff competition to the railways. Jeep and different types of vehicles were designed for patrolling and defence purposes.
   The coming of automobiles led to the improvement of roads and highways. Retail petrol supply points with service and repair facilities were made available on the roadside for ensuring the smooth movement of vehicles. The increase in traffic created traffic rules, and certain internationally agreed signs were adopted. These are understood by all drivers even without the knowledge of the language. The increase in automobiles increased accidents and hazards. Traffic jams and shortage of parking spaces appeared as a serious problem in big cities.

Railways

  The railways continued as the largest carrier of passengers and freight. Steam engines were replaced by diesel and electric engines, and they increased the passenger and freight carrying capacity with less pollution. In developed nations, the increase in the air and the road traffic has reduced the importance of railways. But in developing countries railways continue to remain as the main form of modem transport.

From the Steamboat to the Hovercraft

  Vessels fitted with steam engines helped in the fast movement of freight and passengers. The use of compound steam engine and steam turbine increased the speed of the boats. The introduction of oil or diesel engine and diesel electric engine led to the coming of large and faster sea-going vessels which were able to carry more load. With the increase in air travel, such vessels are used mainly for freight purposes or as oil tankers. Light motor-boats were developed for sport, fishing, and patrolling purposes. The hovercraft, which can move over water, is another innovation.

Flying Machines

  The centuries-old desire of human beings to fly began to take practical shape in the beginning of the twentieth century, and within the next 80 years, human beings went into the outer space, walked on the surface of the moon, and lived in the outer space for long periods. It was a marvelous attainment, which was due to the growth of physical sciences, and development of new fuel and new materials.

Propeller

  Driven petrol-fuelled planes became jet-propelled. Large-size bodies began to be constructed by the use of light materials. In commercial lines, civil transport was evolved, first for operation within the countries and then for international travel. Initially, it was meant only for carrying passengers, mail, and perishable goods. Gradually, it started carrying heavy articles. Today one passenger plane (Concord) can fly at a speed faster than the speed of sound. Besides carrying passengers and serving military needs, aeroplanes and helicopters are used for guarding forests, spraying insecticides, conducting aerial surveys, keeping contact with far-fetched areas, and rushing aid to people marooned Owing to some natural disaster.
   The increase in air-flights has brought forth certain internationally agreed common standards of safety and health regulations and procedures. With the introduction of several electronically operational sophisticated equipment, improvement has taken place in the ground control system (take-off and landing).

Trams and Metros

  A system of rapid transport started operating within cities to case passenger movement. Horse-drawn and later electrical trams were seen to be operating in many cities of the world. Due to congestion of road traffic many cities closed the tramways (London saw the last tram in 1952, Delhi said goodbye to trams in the mid-1950s). In many cities, high speed suburban railways started moving. Cableways or trail-ways Lifted passengers from one level to the higher one. But amazing engineering skills were shown in the establishment of fast-moving underground railways (London, 1863; Glasgow, 1895; Moscow, 1920s; Calcutta, 1980s).

Two-Wheelers

  The slow-moving vehicles for carrying passengers and freight still operate even in the major cities and metropolis. These include animal and man-drawn carts and rickshaws by humans. The bicycle, which is regarded as “the first mechanical possession and the first step in acquiring the mobility so characteristic of the modern age for people emerging from poverty or isolation in non-industrialized parts of the world”, still continues to be an important mode of transport. The bicycle was later motorized. The addition of a powerful motor saw the coming of the heavy motorcycles. A lighter and less costly version, called scooter, has become increasingly popular since the 1960s. The pressure of road traffic sidetracked the bicycle but the oil crisis has again brought back its importance. Another modification of the powered three wheeler, called tempo is used for carrying freight. The motor-cycles are used for patrolling, and for carrying messages. In Goa (probably the only place in the world), they are used as taxis to carry passengers.
   All these developments have led to a tremendous growth in tourism within each country and the world over. As a result, tourism has become a major new industry.

Journey to the Space

  To fly was almost a dream till 1900, but in the next 50 years ‘space age’ showed signs replacing ‘air age’. Fantasy became a reality. First the Soviet Sputnik went into orbit on 4 October 1957. After a few weeks another Sputnik travelled in space with a live dog on board. In the following years several satellites were sent into space with scientific equipment and research animals and returned to the earth. Innumerable photographs and television pictures were sent back and massive data were analysed about the temperature, radioactivity, and various other conditions in space. The stage was set for the first flight of man to space. On 12 April 1961, Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human being to go into and return from Outer space. This and what happened next is part of the current history. Artificial satellites were launched in the outer space and they continued to orbit around the earth, men walked on the surface of the moon, floated in space, and docked one spaceship with another, a group of people travelled together, and astronauts lived in space for longer durations. Satellites were also used for defence purposes and to spy on other countries. Communication through satellites brought the world closer.

Pipelines

  The discussion about transportation will remain incomplete if mention is not made about the worldwide pipelines which carry petroleum products and natural gases from the sources to the refineries and distribution centers. In some places the pipelines are used to transport solid powdered form of coal, limestone, cement, and building materials. These pipelines are seen in almost all countries but are specially noted in the USA, the USSR, the Gulf countries, and India.

Communication

  Postal mail, telegraph and telephone were well established in the nineteenth century as modes of communication. Printed materials in the form of books, magazines, periodicals, and newspapers were also available in the nineteenth century. Telephone was invented in the late nineteenth century. Radio telegraphy developed in 1896 by Marconi continues to be used even today. The development of communication system in the twentieth century has aimed at ensuring the quickest means of communication and at storing information and its quick retrieval at the time of need.
   The first breakthrough in this direction came in 1906 when the vacuum tube was invented by Lee de Forest. The tube helped to increase telephonic impulses and magnify audibility and, later, to receive television and radar images. Gradually, the original valves were improved upon (from large size and short life to small size and long life) and transmission power and quality improved in all kinds of communication. In 1927 another discovery, known as negative feedback, reduced the distortion in communication. Later several other devices were invented to reduce the distortion. Initiated in 1920, radio broad' casting almost simultaneously spread all over the world. Radio-telephone links were established between all the countries of the world. Press reporters were able to send radiophotos together with the news items.
   The next break through was seen in 1948 when Brattain and Bardeen invented the transistor. Transistors replaced the valves, doing the same function, occupying smaller area, and producing no heat. Communication was further facilitated with the development of integrated circuit on silicon chips. All the communication mechanisms became powerful. The function of a radio-set, which one could carry with great difficulty, was now done by a pocket size radio. The television came in Britain, the USA and Ger; many in 1927 and, after 1945, it spread everywhere. Later, colour picture became available on television. The storing and retrieval of information was done until now through print media, records (discs, tapes, spool, cassette, and compact disc), films and micro-films. The computer which was already invented was found to be an excellent tool for the storing and retrieval of information. With the development of integrated circuit, the microcomputers further enhanced the storage and retrieval of information. Printed materials like newspapers took the fullest advantage of developments in the communication system. Together with the telephone and the radio, the microcomputer brought about radical changes in news transmission and printing. The electronic mail, Fax machines, and desk top printing machines are some examples of the extension of computer technology.

DEVELOPMENT OF ARMAMENTS

  Human beings have been making and using weapons for hunting and protection since very early times. The development of weapons, from those made of stone to those made of metal, and the uses of gun powder have a long history. The use of elephants, camels, and horses during a war for swift movement and for carrying load, and the use of protective shields and armours continued for a long time. The First World War was restricted to the battlefields with trenches and barbed wire fencing, and was fought with guns and cannons. The Second World War came as a total war in which all the industries were geared to the needs of pursuing the war. Railways and roadways were used for the transportation of soldiers. Aeroplanes were modified into bombers and fighters. The civilian areas, particularly those where industries were located, became war targets. Several types of tanks, which appeared to be unconquerable, were put to use. Guns, rifles and cannons were improved to hit targets at long distances. Rockets were invented to carry bombs to attack the targets at distance places. Submarines came into use for destroying the enemy’s ships. The communication between the base and forward areas became faster and surveillance became more accurate. Not only offence, the defensive mechanism also became modified. Radio and television were used for propaganda and for communicating news.
   The Second World War ended with the use of atomic bombs. Peace came, but it came with a new fear. The Cold War began, and with it started the race to build more and more destructive weapons. After the fission bomb, that is the atom bomb, came the fusion bomb (Hydrogen bomb). Powerful missiles carrying nuclear bombs were developed to reach distant targets in the shortest possible time. Submarines became nuclear powered, and aircraft-carriers carrying fighter and bomber planes were floated. Chemical weapons (poison gas) and biological weapons (for germ warfare) were also developed. Localised but destructive wars broke out in several places like Korea, Vietnam, and Iraq-Iran, India-Pakistan, where many new weapons, except the nuclear weapons, were used. The world witnessed with bewilderment the destructive power of the new weapons and means of warfare like missiles, rockets, tanks, aeroplanes, helicopters, napalm bomb, and poison gases. The conquest of outer space added another dimension to the race for armaments. Many nations have spent huge funds to establish a network of radars, anti-missile devices, and underground shelters for purposes of defence. Even during peace time; most nations are on a war footing. As a result of all this the single most important area to which scientific and technological development is geared, is defence.

TOWARDS ANOTHER REVOLUTION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

  In the recent decades, the rate of growth of science and technology has become even faster. For example, the aeroplane was perfected in 1931; within the next thirty years it was possible to reach the outer space. Plastics and rayon came during the Second World War, and in the next twenty years they began to replace metals and natural fibers. Penicillin came as a magic drug-during the Second World War, and in the next twenty years a large number of antibiotics were developed. The molecular structure of DNA was discovered in 1953 and, before twenty years were over it became possible to manipulate the genes.
   When first introduced, the computer used electrically operated tubes, and required an entire building to install it. But after the use of silicon chips, it appeared as a table-top microcomputer with more information storage capacity. Efforts are in progress to use optical fibers and cytochrome C to replace silicon chips for even better information storage.
   The coming of artificial synthesis and finer techniques of separation and isolation opened up a new era of chemical industry, and reduced the demand for many raw materials as resources. The new findings in genetics were applied to agriculture and poultry, and all countries enhanced their food production.
   We are in the midst of the new scientific and technological revolution. Research in science and technology has become an integral part of economic development. During the process of its growth in the twentieth century, science has changed its character. From individual based, impersonal science, it has become an institutionalized, cost-intensive, and public activity. Together with industrialization, it has affected every human activity and every aspect of human life.

The Continuing Problems

  Modem science and technology first emerged in a few countries in the West, and along with the accompanying changes in society and economy, they enabled those countries to establish their hegemony over the rest of the world. The colonial rule, director indirect, created vast inequalities between countries, and they persist even today. The scientific and technological backwardness of most countries of the world has been a major factor of their under-development. For the first time in human history, science and technology have made it possible to banish starvation, malnutrition, want, and most diseases which take a huge toll of human lives. However, all these problems persist for the majority of the world’s population. Owing to the unequal distribution of wealth resulting from science-based industrial development in a few countries, the world has become divided into developed and developing countries: The disparities between ‘the two continue to persist and even grow although the use of science and technology makes it possible to reduce, if not altogether do away with, these disparities. A considerable part of national resources is spent, in the name of defence, oh the development of war materials and weapons of destruction. In the 1970s, millions of people died of starvation and millions died a slow death due to malnutrition. In India, one third of child deaths are due to diseases which are preventable. Many of the world’s problems-poverty, diseases, environmental pollution-can be solved only with the help of science and by all nations working together. There has been a growing realization of this the world over, and many significant steps have been taken to tackle various problems through international efforts. The role of various international organizations, particularly the UN and its many specialized agencies such as UNESCO, WHO, UNICEF, FAO, in these efforts has been particularly crucial.
   While science and technology have made it possible, for the first time, to rid the world of want and misery, they have also, for the first time, made it possible for all human life to be destroyed. As the world approaches the beginning of the twenty-first century, human beings have to make this choice-either to perish as a result of nuclear war and environmental degradation or to survive through coexistence as citizens of One World.